Gaining And Maintaining Airworthiness Engineering Essay

Gaining And Maintaining Airworthiness Engineering Essay Aircraft design process involved in varied disciplines such as aerodynamics, structures, flight mechanics etc. Therefore, for an aircraft to become operational it is essential to demonstrate that the construction and design of the aircraft can comply with the requirements applicable and such verification and validation evidence required to be delegated to the relevant authorities. This report introduces Airworthiness and provides the reader the framework involved in gaining airworthiness and how to maintain it subsequently. Introduction Consideration of airworthiness policies has its origins since the early days of military flying. But aircraft design data has been recorded prior to 1910 for balloons and the Royal Aircraft Factory has produced a design requirement document in 1916. The Aerial Navigation Act that is sanction by the Home Office in 1911 to ban flying in populated areas is an early example of safety regulation. Airworthiness Department has been established decade later by the Royal Aircraft Factory (as part of the Air Ministry), which is the beginning of procedures for company design approvals and approved data. Aircraft airworthiness means compliance with applicable aviation authorities regulations that defines the minimum safety level of the aircraft, of the passengers transported and the over flown territories. When designed and built according to applicable requirements, When operated within its intended environment and within its quantified and declared limitations, And maintained in accordance with procedures acceptable to the responsible Authority. The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Regulation 216/2008, Article 5, 2(c) defines the airworthiness as; Each aircraft shall be issued with an individual certificate of airworthiness when it is shown that it conforms to the type design approved in its type-certificate and that relevant documentation, inspections and tests demonstrate the aircraft is in condition for safe operation The Airworthiness is a collective responsibility of operators, authorities, manufactures and maintenance organisations. An airworthy aircraft is one where the likelihood of any incident or accident as a result of malfunction, performance or handling of the aircraft is kept to acceptable levels. The only real measure of airworthiness in use is given by tracking and analyzing incidents and accidents. The remaining sections will discuss the essence of Gaining and Maintaining Airworthiness. Figure 01: Airworthiness Collective Responsibilities Implementation of Airworthiness Authority (EASA) confidence that the design of a product complies with the applicable requirements based on Certification of the organisation (IR 21 DOA) Certification of the design of products (CS 25 TC) DO Approval According to European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), Design Organisation Approval (DOA) requirements Implementing Rule (IR) part 21 (published as annex to European Commission Regulation (EC) No 1702/2003) includes procedural requirements applicable either to the industry (Section A) or to the Competent Authorities (Section B) but Part 21 does not include provisions to delegate EASA authority and / or signature to individuals. Certification of aircraft and related products, parts and appliances, and of design and production organisations Organisations must demonstrate following key elements in order to obtain DO Approval. Design Assurance System Handbook Right People Terms of Approval Obligations of the holder Figure 02 DOA Key Elements Design Organisation Approval (DOA) Organisation Structure Following diagram illustrates a simplified organisation structure demonstrating the essential elements in an aircraft design and manufacturing organisation. Figure 03: Design Organisation Structure Chief Executive Officer (CEO): Responsible for appropriate functioning of the work place by ensuring availability of required resources. Designated Certification Specialist (DCS): Airworthiness specialist nominated for a given discipline (ATA or Sub-ATA level or for Approved Manuals) to carry out the certification tasks, in particular to manage the compliance demonstration activities for their domain. Part of the airworthiness function and act under the control of Product Integrity. Certification Manager (CM) Certification panel leaders for their area of competence, Participate in the development of new certification strategies The CM is the interface with Aviation Authorities at panel level for primary TC, foreign certification / validation activities and for allocated major changes. Chief Airworthiness Engineer (CAE) Responsible for leading and coordinating the certification and airworthiness activities for the programme. Supported by a team usually called the CAE team composed of: A Type Certification Manger (TCM) An Individual Aircraft Certification Manager (IACM) A Continued Airworthiness Manager (CAM) Type Certification Type certification is the process demonstrating that the design of an aircraft complies with the applicable aviation requirements. Certification process could be a new type certificate new aircraft (ex. Airbus A380), Amended Type certification model or derivative (ex: Airbus A350 1000) and significant major changes to the type design (ex. A330-200 Passenger to Freighter) To grant and EASA Type Certificate, aircraft manufacture shall obtain first a DOA (Design Organisation Approval) covering the relevant product (aircraft type) and also shall demonstrate its capability to design, certify and ensure the continued airworthiness of its products in accordance with the certification specification (CS-25) and Environmental protection (CS-34, CS-36) requirements. To manufacture and release to service series aircraft, manufacture must then obtain a POA (Production Organisation Approval) and establish relationship between DOA POA. Flight Test Flight testing process could be potentially very risky and extremely expensive due to unforeseen problem s result in loss of life (both crew and people on the ground) and damage to the aircraft. Due to this reasons modern flight testing is one of the most safety conscious operations. Typically there are two types of flight test programs, military and commercial. There is a significant difference between military and commercial flight testing where commercial test programs are carried out to certify the aircraft meets all required safety and performance requirements where as military programs involved in aircraft manufactures designing and building aircraft to government contracts to meet specific mission capabilities. Initiation of flight test preparations for both commercial and military aircraft commence well before the aircraft is ready to fly, although due to the fact that the government is funding the military projects, involvement of military flight testing is commence much ear ly-on in the design and testing process. Historical Data Analysis According to historical evidence, operational and airframe related risk of a serious accident causes is approximately one per million flight hours but failure problems occurred by aircraft systems problems is about 10 percent of this total amount. Therefore, it is reasonable to argue that systems faults should not allowed serious accidents and it is therefore possible for a new design to change the probability of such a serious accident not to be greater than one per ten million flight hours (1 x 10-7). But it is not possible to identify whether the target can be met until all the aircraft systems has been numerically collectively analysed. Due to this reason its assumed that there are about 100 potential failure conditions present arbitrarily which could prevent safe flight and landing of the aircraft. By sharing out equally the target allowable risk (x 10-7) equally among these conditions risk allocation result in not greater than 1 x 10-9 to each. Therefore the upper risk limit for failure conditions would be 1 x 10-9 for each hour of flight which approximates probability value for the term Extremely Improbable. Analytic techniques Various analytical techniques have been developed in line with the above topic to assist Airworthiness Authority and the applicant to carry out a safety analysis, which could benefit systematic qualitative analysis. This technique also important for analyst to perform quantitative assessment when required. The Advisory Material Joint (AMJ) identifies both qualitative and quantitative analytical approaches which could used to support JAA personal or assist applicant to determine the compliance with the requirement. And it also provides guidance for determining if or when a particular analysis to be conducted. The intended requirement of the analytical tools is supplement but not to replace operational and engineering judgement. Legal Issues To have a basic understanding of the legal requirement is vital for aviation professionals such as pilots, mechanics, air traffic controllers and executives. National and international laws or regulations regulate all aspects of civil air transportation. To ensure the effectiveness of the legal framework and enforceability of safety aspects, the following basic groups of regulations have been developed. Airworthiness Regulations to define: Applicable procedures, and Minimum safety, technical and performance requirements to be realised and maintain in the aircraft design. Ex: EASA Part 21 (aircraft certification procedures), Part M and Part 145 (aircraft maintenance) CS-25 (design code for large aircraft) Operational regulations: to define the basic rules air traffic has to follow and the minimum requirements for certain kinds of operations, for the aircraft and the person or the organisation. Ex: EU-OPS1 Commercial Air Transportation After an accident there is two main investigations (technical legal proceedings) will be conducted. Legal proceedings consist with; Civil proceedings which involved in civil claims for damages by victims and/or their relatives, Commercial proceedings which involved in claims for damages by customer and/or its insurer (Aircraft repair / loss, Reduction in aircraft residual value, Loss of revenue) and finally Criminal prosecution, in case of death / serious injury, in certain jurisdictions (ex: France, Germany). Continued Airworthiness According to ICAO Doc No 9760-2001 continued Airworthiness defined as The processes that ensure, at any time in its life, an aircraft complies with the technical conditions fixed to the issue of the Certificate of Airworthiness and is in a condition for safe operation. And recommends Contracting states are required to have a system that ensures aircraft are in a condition for safe operation. F. Florio (2006) stated that safety is the most important thing which has to be ensuring every time in every flight operations and all the airplanes must be in an air worthy state which is suitable for fly. In other words all the aircrafts must achieve and perform all the procedures in the Airworthiness Directive manuals. Furthermore, Florio (2006) also mentioned that continued airworthiness can be rely on two factors Organisation operators Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance can be explained as alterations, inspections, replacements of parts of the aircraft. This can be done by taking a record entry for each event such as replacement of LRUs (Line replacement units). According to Florio (2006), Maintenance refers to as preventive maintenance, alterations and repairs and introduction of airworthiness directive and also he stated that airworthiness is rely on the maintenance programmes , which also establish the replacement of time change items , the overhaul engines, propellers and various parts of appliances. Florio mentioned that as the part of the product type certifications of aircraft airworthiness authorities requires instructions for continued airworthiness thus these instructions can be identified as the fundamental tools of the maintenance because they are the basic maintenance programmes. These maintenance programmes must cater the requirements of operational and maintenance standards. According to EASA Maintenance programme; Every aircraft shall be maintained in accordance with the maintenance programmes approved by the competent authority, which shall be periodically reviewed and amended accordingly. The maintenance programme and any subsequent amendments shall be approved by the competent authority The maintenance programmes must establish compliance with; Instructions for continuing airworthiness issued by the type certificate and the supplementary type certificate holder Instructions issued by the complement authority Instructions issued by the owner or the operator and approved by the competent authority. Repairs Repair process involves different organisations where, when the products are not with aircraft manufacture, continuing airworthiness is governed by the state of registry or the responsibilities are spread out in organisations. Part 21A subpart M states the repair procedural requirements for certification. Under Part 21 subpart M: Elimination of damage (21A.431 b) Unrepaired damages (21A.445 a) Out of Part 21 subpart M Replacement without design activity (21A.431c) Repairs design from an approved manual (GM 21A.431 a) Following diagrams illustrates the Airbus repairing process. Figure 04: Airbus Repairing Process The Structure Repair Manual (SRM) describes general repair practices, materials and typical repairs, allowed damages, which are considered applicable to standard repairs. Its approved by aircraft manufacture under DOR privilege. Modifications Changes made to a particular aircraft after the issue of the airworthiness certificate is a modification. This could include changes to the structures, systems, powerplants, propellers etc Furthermore, substitution of one type for another also considered as a modification. Any modification requires approval from the Civil Aviation Authority directly or via an approved organisation. During a design modification, details of the change must be given to the authority at early stage where then the modification is classified as minor or major medication according to the nature of the investigation. If the outcome of an investigation requires amendments to the Certificate of Airworthiness or Flight Manual, authority may require following major modification procedures. Incidents and Accidents Flight safety experts believe that series of events leads to incidents and accidents. Accidents During the operation of an aircraft, result in occurrence associated with a person being fatally or seriously injured from the time any person boards to the aircraft with intention of flight until the time all persons disembarked. Incidents Other than accidents incidents also occurrences which relate to the operation of the aircraft or could affect the safety of its operation. Aging Aircraft Civil Aviation authority has defined Aging aircrafts as An operational aircraft approaching the end of its design life assumptions (Alder P. 2005). Aging aircraft can also be called as an older aircraft as well. Since the aircraft are manufacture to provide long lasting services for so many years, all the aircraft must be in an airworthy state and have to be safe to fly. Thus maintenance programmes must be carried out to maintain the aircraft and also aircraft must be operated according to the manufacturers recommendation. Florio F. (2006) stated that, older aircraft require additional care and the maintenance programmes must be carried out in a more specific way than the recently manufactured aircraft. And also he stated that due to the fatigue, accidental damage and also due to the environmental deterioration more inspection in the components of the structure must require in maintenance programmes. So to maintain airworthiness in older aircrafts manufacturers of the flight has to provide operators with the specific programs. In older aircrafts normally each of the aeroplane components have to undergo some of the repairs, overhauls, inspection maintenance, preventive maintenance and some replacements of components of the aircraft. Maintenance records have to be update regularly by the operator. Florio F. (2006) states that between operator of the aircraft, manufacturer and also the authority there should be an open communication system. Furthermore he states that once a problem occur the operator or the owner of the aircraft must inform it to the manufacturer and then manufacturer has to prepare the recommendations and has to update the appropriate programmes of continued air worthiness. After examination of those maintenance programmes the authorities will approve those. Role of the Regulator Airworthiness programmes consist of three main roles. Regulator Implementer Investigator Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) are examples for the regulation authorities. These authorities generate and distribute the regulations for aircraft operations for aviation industry. Civil Aviation Authority is the UKs independent specialist regulator. Their main responsibility is to provide world leading air safety environment in the aviation industry. Aircraft licensing, maintenance of specific airworthiness management systems and economic regulations, consumer protection, policies for airspace and setting up national safety standards can be taken as key role of CAA. Regulators involved in few or many roles as follows: Setting up the civil aviation standards and ensure they are achieved. Regulates and encourages airlines, airports and national air traffic services economic activities etc Manages the principal travel protection scheme. Ensure the airspace is a common place for all users by bringing civil and military interests together. Advise the government on aviation issues. Represents consumer interests Conduct scientific and economic research. Provide specialist services by producing statistical data. Conclusion Recommendation Aircraft airworthiness means compliance with applicable aviation authorities regulations that defines the minimum safety level of the aircraft, of the passengers transported and the over flown territories and when designed and built according to applicable requirements, when operated within its intended environment and within its quantified and declared limitations and maintained in accordance with procedures acceptable to the responsible Authority. Therefore, The Airworthiness is a collective responsibility of operators, authorities, manufactures and maintenance organisations.

Elements of Western, Comedy and Thriller in Jarmusch’s Film Dead Man :: Movie Film Essays

Elements of Western, Comedy and Thriller in Jarmusch’s Film Dead Man Released in 1995, the film â€Å"Dead Man† is set in the West in the latter half of the 19th century. The film is a genre-combining work. Although â€Å"Dead Man† is a Western, it brings in many elements from the Comedy and the Thriller. The movie is set in the west, yet the audience finds themselves laughing at many comical incidents as well as anticipating what will happen to Blake next. The film is a Western in many ways, but is also a satire of the genre. First of all, the character Nobody is a Native American. This is common to Westerns, however, the remainder of his character is not. While Indians in Westerns are usually savages, Nobody was educated in England and only interested in helping the protagonist. Also, Blake arrives in town alone. Heroes in Westerns have typically been loners. However, Blake’s character is not much of a hero as he does not demonstrate many characteristics commonly associated with heroism. He is not courageous, fighting some ‘evil’ or ‘bad’ presence, or have some sort of special skills. When walking through, the town is established as a lawless place. For example, Blake and the audience see a woman performing oral sex on a man in public. This lawlessness is expected in the West. However, this specific incident is also satirical of the genre as Westerns would not normally show such a vulgar act. During the course of â€Å"Dead Man,† Jarmusch uses some scenes to create a Thriller-like tension. For example, in the first scene, when Blake is traveling, many interesting passengers ride along with him on the train. The train conductor sits across from Blake and warns him of his destination, the town of Machine. The conductor tells Blake that Machine is the â€Å"end of the line.† These are very ominous words. The conductor also states that Blake is likely to find his grave there. A gunshot is then fired. These are actions and dialogue not regular to Westerns. This scene brings to â€Å"Dead Man† the element of suspense common to the Thriller. Throughout the film, the audience is also exposed to many different comical scenes. Many situations and even dialogue are humorous. For example, one of the three killers sleeps with a Teddy Bear. Additionally, Nobody calls Blake a â€Å"stupid fucking white man.† This is funny purely because it is not something that would be expected from his character.

Impact of Culture on Entrepreneurship

Information Management and Business Review Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 30-34, Jan 2012 (ISSN 2220-3796) Impact of Culture on Entrepreneur Intention Syed Imran Sajjad1, *Haroon Shafi1, Aasim Munir Dad2 1Iqra university Islamabad campus 2University of Science and Technology (MUST) Mirpur Azad Kashmir, Pakistan *[email  protected] com Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to identify the role of entrepreneurship in Pakistan. After reviewing the literature, researchers identify those predictors who influence the entrepreneur’s intention with the help of socio cognitive model.National culture of a country influences the entrepreneur’s intention to start new business. Perceived feasibility, perceived desirability and entrepreneurs experience has a direct impact on entrepreneur’s intention. The study finds out the impact of culture on entrepreneur intention, different cultures have different ways to influence the entrepreneur intention and different ways to impact on int entions towards perceived feasibility and perceived desirability .The study helps entrepreneur’s decision making process and also helps out the development of further new business in Pakistan, motivates students to become entrepreneurs and analyzes their feasibility and desirability. Culture varies from country to country, within country different provinces, how different cultures, different traditions, norms and values. So in future, it helps to analyze entrepreneur’s intention in different cultures.Key words: Pakistan’s society, Entrepreneurship, entrepreneur’s experience, culture 1. Introduction Entrepreneur is an individual who runs a business with new idea or adding value in existing idea entrepreneur is a creator, risk taker who brings change in environment, with the help of technology, effective organization trained employees, and gets maximum benefit. A good leader is that, who manage all these activities on continuous bases.This is the study of a n individual who starts new business. In this paper researchers analyze the entrepreneurial intention how entrepreneur is being motivate to starts new business, the relationship between entrepreneur intention with their experienced and relationship between desirability that influences the entrepreneur intention, study also analyze the affect of national culture on entrepreneur intention as well as entrepreneurial activity for development nd underdevelopment countries. Different aspects of human behavior but the one predictor intention plays an important role (Ajzen, 1991) when individual starts new business than an economic activity starts than circulation of money starts ultimately growth of country starts according to Romer(1994) due to entrepreneur investment in new venture long term growth of country starts.According to Mitchell et al (2002) for starting a new business many factors influence entrepreneur intention like desirability, feasibility, and entrepreneurial experience, b ut it varies culture to culture and nation to nation, within country culture varies, researchers are still unclear, the over all impacts of culture in entrepreneur intention, Every country has its own culture, its values, norms and beliefs that affects the entrepreneurial intention, at some stages the culture plays an important role in decision making.Now a day’s private sector plays a vital role in economic development, in private sector small business owners have various opportunities to start new venture. The policies of government are important for entrepreneurs, but only development of policies is not sufficient, their implementation is also mandatory to attract investor to invest in business, small and medium enterprises some time not going well due to lack of knowledge and infrastructure.This paper is conceptual in nature and focuses that how entrepreneurs motivate to start a new venture especially in the context of culture. 2. Literature Review 30 Entrepreneurial inte ntion: Entrepreneurial intent to begin an innovative enterprise, in literature different researchers suggested the importance of entrepreneur intent such as (Shapero & Sokol, 1982; Shapero, 1975; Krueger, 1993; Bird, 1988; Krueger et al. , 2000). Some researchers including (Bird, 1988) identified entrepreneur individual nature, skill, experience the same as social desirability and personal feasibility.Different Researchers recommended including (Shane, 2003), that: the existence of an entrepreneurial possibility; its identification by the entrepreneur; and the conscious decision of the entrepreneur to be aware of that chance, are between the mandatory steps required in the entrepreneurial process. Cristina and Dwayne (2009) saw the effect of entrepreneur intention in Caribbean and the found out the link among entrepreneur intention, desirability, and feasibility and suggested that culture acted as moderator to influence the entrepreneur’s intention.After reviewing literature it has been seen that there is linked between desirability perception and entrepreneur intention to begin a new venture, Krueger (1993) practiced Shapiro’s theoretical model and suggested that there is a positive impact of perceived desirability on entrepreneur intention (Krueger et al. , 2000). For better understanding of different indicators and the impact of these indicators on entrepreneur (Krueger et al. 2000) suggested that attitude of entrepreneur varies for every exogenous facet that affects entrepreneur intention to become entrepreneur. P1. Perceived desirability will directly influence entrepreneurial intentions. The study analyzed that perceived feasibility and perceived desirability are decided by exogenous facet for example individual and conditional facets disclosure to entrepreneur experiences that studied as exogenous facets, all these observation manipulate entrepreneur intentions.According to (Bandura, 1994) self-efficacy is an emotional and thinking process . In this, model the two predictor perceived feasibility and desirability act as mediators the both predictors influence entrepreneur experience. This paper is extensions of social cognitive process model that analyzed to identify, save, and recover the information ultimately take suitable action (Frese and Zapf, 1994). For entrepreneur information any resource is very important, to identify that information and take proper action.Cristina and Dwayne (2009) argued that perceived feasibility and desirability has direct impact on entrepreneur intention and also there is a direct relationship between entrepreneur experience and intention, entrepreneur, experience plays an important role, experience influences the intention, due to experience their performance increase, experience motivated towards risk taking for new venture . Due to entrepreneur expertise that is gained from previous experience makes strategies more effective (Zhao et al. 2005). It has been argued that feasibility per ceptions regarding entrepreneurship are influenced by prior exposure to entrepreneurial experiences. For example, (Shapero and Sokol, 1982) contended that prior exposure to entrepreneurial activity would have a positive effect on perceptions of feasibility (and perceived desirability). Krueger (1993) demonstrated in his study that breadth of entrepreneurial xperiences significantly and directly influenced perceived feasibility, In literature it is carefully reviewed that entrepreneur’s intentions reveal a very few piratical support such as (Krueger and Dickson, 1994), analyzed that in risky situation self efficacy of those entrepreneurs are high influence high level of perception, if feasibility is high then entrepreneurs intention is more to start a new business and desire to invest more and more in business.A supportive culture also influences the entrepreneur’s intention, with his social and moral values and belief. P2. Perceived Feasibility will directly Impact on entrepreneurial intentions P3. Entrepreneur experience has a direct Impact on entrepreneurial intentions 31 Figure 1: Model Culture Perceived Feasibility Entrepreneurial Experience Entrepreneurial Intentions Perceived Desirability Culture: It recommends that the culture is most effective constant for entrepreneur. Good cultural values also influence the entrepreneur intention.The appropriateness, consistency, effectiveness, (ACE) model of persuasion (Reardon et al. , 1989) three main thought of culture Importance, stability, efficiency. Culture includes some social, moral ethical values norms and beliefs that must be socially acceptable (Hofstede, 1980). This extends society think about those values norms and beliefs. Normally, researchers analyzed that culture facilitated the entrepreneurship because of high individuality, low ambiguity, and low in power remoteness, and high intention for commencement of new business. Hayton et al. , 2002, p. 34). National culture has a moderating effect on entrepreneur intention (Fernandez et al. , 1997), George and Prabhu, 2000) P4. culture of a country has a significant effect on entrepreneur intention. 3. Discussion The present study examines the role of entrepreneurial intention in Pakistan and how culture affects the entrepreneurial intention. This model is based on Shapero and Sokol (1982) and tested by Krueger (1993). Later on Dwayne Devonish, et. l (2009) investigates the effect of entrepreneur intention in Caribbean; In Caribbean Governments are familiar with the need to expand the structure and change the mechanism in provinces and encourage the entrepreneurship. This present study sees the effect of culture in entrepreneurial intention in Pakistani society. Now – a – day’s instability of government is not helpful for entrepreneur to invest. Government policies are also significantly affecting the entrepreneur intention.This model indicates that entrepreneurial experience has a direct and posit ive relationship with perceived desirability and perceived feasibility. The entrepreneurial intention plays an importance role for starting new venture, past experience influence their decisions the model shows the direct relationship between entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial experience. This model recommends that the entrepreneur’s experiences acts as a key function to influence the intention of an individual to become entrepreneur linked with the previous point of view and research (Shapero and Sokol, 1982).According to Krueger et al (2000) experience influences the entrepreneur intention, there is also a direct relationship between entrepreneur’s experience on perceived feasibility and perceived desirability, feasibility and desirability existing in environment that influence the entrepreneur’s experience, so perceived feasibility and perceived desirability partially mediates entrepreneurs experiences and entrepreneurs intentions. Entrepreneurs ex perience directly influences the entrepreneur’s intention to start a new venture. 2 The other two indicators perceived feasibility and desirability mediated the entrepreneurial experience towards entrepreneurial intention. In this paper, we see the impact of culture on entrepreneurial intentions and his experience, how values and norms of a culture affect entrepreneurial decision in Pakistani society, different cultures have their own values traditions and norms, many small and medium size organizations have different impact on culture. Mark-Pruett et al. 2008) suggest that national culture of a country is directly linked with entrepreneur intention. Culture is shared values, norms, traditions rules beliefs, and anticipated behaviors of people. Cultural values and beliefs specify the level to which society judges’ entrepreneurial behaviors, such as innovation, perceived feasibility, risk taking, independent thinking and perceived desirable. Managerial implication: The study also helps managers to understand the impact of culture on entrepreneurial intentions and experience.The other motivating research would be to arrange a relative research for the service firms in different markets. A good culture influences entrepreneurial intention ultimately its performance increases and firm grows. A good supportive culture is helpful for the development of the organization, Government policies must be stable and supportive for new investors, banks also play important role for giving them loan on low interest rates, and all these aspects attract the entrepreneur intentions to start a new venture.Limitation and Recommendation: The study finds out the impact of culture on entrepreneur intention, different cultures have different ways to influence the entrepreneur intention and different ways to impact on intentions towards perceived feasibility and perceived desirability. It is difficult to sketch the conclusion, because in both streams of researches, it is d ifficult to measure lack of agreement and lack of clearness. In conclusion, we can say that the involvement of culture and its influence on entrepreneurial intentions helps entrepreneur to take decision.The regular support is education that increases entrepreneurial performance and efficiency. It is suggested that the education system in universities and colleges should help to improve the skill and knowledge of students regarding entrepreneurship, and also focus the students attention to find out the their desirability and feasibility in the field on entrepreneurship, conducting seminar on entrepreneurship allow entrepreneurs to share the experience with students and motivate them. Danns and Mentore (1995) suggested that â€Å"entrepreneurial experience† helps the students to develop positive attitude and approach to start a new venture. . Conclusion and Future Research Finally, entrepreneurship is a key factor for the development of any country. The current study focuses on the entrepreneur’s intention, national culture of a country influences the entrepreneur’s intention, perceived feasibility, and desirability and entrepreneurial experience directly influence the intention of any individual to start a new business. This study only emphasizes only Pakistani culture, and culture related policies and their implementation. In future research scholar will focus on one aspect of culture or one particular area. Culture varies country to country.Appropriate scale should be developed to empirically examine relations among above model. References Ajzen, I. (1991). Theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(1), 179-211. Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy, in Ramachaudran, V. S. (Ed. ). Encyclopedia of Human Behavior Academic Press, 4, 71-81. Bird, B. (1988). Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: the case for intentions. Academy of Management Review, 13, 442-449. Cristina, J. & Dwayne, D. (2009). An explorato ry study of competitive strategies among hotels in a small developing Caribbean state.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 21(4), 491 – 500. Danns, G. K. & Mentore, M. M. (1995). Race and economic power in Guyana: a study of the East Indians, in Ryan, S. and Stewart, T. (Eds), Entrepreneurship in the Caribbean: Culture, Structure, Conjuncture, University of the West Indies, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Trinidad and Tobago. 33 Fernandez, D. R. , Carlson, D. S. , Stepina, L. P. & Nicholson, J. D. (1997). Hofstede’s country classification 25 years later. Journal of Social Psychology, 137(1), 43-54. Frese, M. & Zapf, D. (1994).Action as the core of work psychology, in Trandis, H. C. , Dunnette, M. D. and Hough, L. (Eds), Handbook of Industrial and Organ. George, G. & Prabhu, G. (2000). Developmental financial institutions as catalysts of Entrepreneurship in emerging economies. Academy of Management Review, 25, 620-30. Hayton, J. C. , George, G. & Zahara, S. A. (2002). National culture and entrepreneurship: a review of behavioral research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(4), 33-53. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA. Krueger, N. & Dickson, P.R. (1994). How believing in ourselves increases risk taking: perceived self-efficacy and opportunity recognition. Decision Sciences, 25(3), 385-400. Krueger, N. (1993). The impact of prior entrepreneurial exposure on perceptions of new venture feasibility and desirability. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 3, 5-21. Krueger, N. , Reilly, M. & Carsrud, A. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(2), 411-32. Mark-Pruett, R. , Bryan, T. , Francisco, L. & Jerry, F. (2008). International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 15(6), 571-594.Mitchell, R. , Smith, J. B. , Morsem, E. A. , Seawright, K. , Peredo, A. M. & McKe nzie, B. (2002). Are entrepreneurial cognitions universal? Assessing entrepreneurial cognitions across cultures. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(4), 9-32. Reardon, T. , Crawford, E. & Kelly, V. (1989). Link between nonfarm income and farm investment in Africa households: Adding the capital marketing perspective. American journal of Agriculture Economics, 76 (5), 172-179. Romer, P. (1994). The origins of endogenous growth. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8(1), 3-22. Shane, S. (2003).A General Theory of Entrepreneurship, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. Shapero, A. (1975). The displaced, uncomfortable entrepreneur, Psychology Today, 9(11), 83-8. Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Some social dimensions of entrepreneurship in Kent, C. (Ed. ), Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 72-90. Zhao, H. , Hills, G. E. & Siebert, S. E. (2005). The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (6), 1265-1272. 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Importance of Jade in Chinese Culture

Importance of Jade in Chinese Culture Jade is a metamorphic rock that is naturally colored green, red, yellow, or white. When it polished and treated, the vibrant colors of jade can be extraordinary. The most popular kind of jade in Chinese culture is green jade, which has an emerald hue.   Called 玉 (yà ¹) in Chinese, jade is important to Chinese culture because of its beauty, practical use, and social value. Here is an introduction to jade and why it is so important to Chinese people. Now when you browse through an antique shop, jewelry store, or museum, you can impress your friends with your knowledge of this important stone. Types of Jade Jade is classified into soft jade (nephrite) and hard jade (jadeite). Since China only had soft jade until jadeite was imported from Burma during the Qing dynasty (1271–1368 CE), the term jade traditionally refers to nephrite, and so soft jade is also called traditional jade. In preColumbian America, only hard jade was available; all Native American jades are jadeite. Burmese jadeite is called feicui in Chinese. Feicui is now more popular and valuable than soft jade in China today. History of Jade Jade has been a part of Chinese civilization from the earliest days. Chinese jade was used as a material for practical and ornamental purposes at an early period in history, and it continues to be very popular today. The earliest Chinese jade is from the early Neolithic period Hemudu culture in Zhejian Province (about 7000–5000 BCE). Jade was an important part of ritual contexts in the middle to late Neolithic periods, such as the Hongshan culture that existed along the Lao River and the Liangzhu culture in the Tai Lake region (both date between 4000–2500 BCE). Carved jade has also been found in sites dated to the Longshan culture (3500–2000 BCE) by the Yellow River; and the Bronze age cultures of Western and Easter Zhou dynasties (11th–3rd centuries BCE). In  Ã¨ ª ªÃ¦â€"‡è § £Ã¥ ­â€" (shuo  wen  jie  zi), the first Chinese dictionary published in the early second century CE, jade was described as beautiful stones by the writer Xu Zhen. Jade has been a familiar substance in Chinese culture for a very long time. Uses of Chinese Jade Archaeological artifacts of jade include sacrificial  vessels, tools, ornaments,  utensils, and many other items. Ancient music instruments were made out of Chinese jade, such as the yuxiao  (a flute made of jade and played vertically), and chimes. The beautiful color of jade made it a mysterious stone to the Chinese in ancient times, so jade wares were popular as sacrificial vessels and were often buried with the dead. One example of the ritual importance of jade is the burial of the body of Liu Sheng, a prince of the Zhongshan State (Western Han Dynasty) who died around 113 BCE. He was buried in a  jade suit  composed of 2,498 pieces of jade stitched together with gold thread. Importance of Jade in Chinese Culture Chinese people love jade not only because of its aesthetic beauty but also because of what it represents regarding social value. In the Li Ji (Book of Rites), Confucius said that there are 11 De, or virtues, represented in jade: benevolence, justice, propriety, truth, credibility, music, loyalty, heaven, earth, morality, and intelligence. The wise have likened jade to virtue. For them, its polish and brilliancy represent the whole of purity; its perfect compactness and extreme hardness represent the sureness of intelligence; its angles, which do not cut, although they seem sharp, represent justice; the pure and prolonged sound, which it gives forth when one strikes it, represents music. Its color represents loyalty; its interior flaws, always showing themselves through the transparency, call to mind sincerity; its iridescent brightness represents heaven; its admirable substance, born of mountain and of water, represents the earth. Used alone without ornamentation it represents chastity. The price that the entire world attaches to it represents the truth. Book of Rites In the Shi Jing  (Book of Odes), Confucius wrote: When I think of a wise man, his merits appear to be like jade. Book of Odes Thus, beyond monetary worth and materiality, jade is greatly prized as it stands for beauty, grace, and purity. As the Chinese saying goes: gold has a value; jade is invaluable.   Jade in the Chinese Language Because jade represents desirable virtues, the word for jade (yu) is incorporated into many Chinese idioms and proverbs to denote beautiful things or people. For example, å† °Ã¦ ¸â€¦Ã§Å½â€°Ã¦ ´  (bingqing yujie), which directly translates to clear as ice and clean as jade is a Chinese saying that means someone is pure and noble. ä º ­Ã¤ º ­Ã§Å½â€°Ã§ «â€¹ (tingting  yuli) is a phrase used to describe something or someone that is fair, slim, and graceful. Additionally, 玉å ¥ ³ (yà ¹nÇš), which means jade woman,  is a term for a lady or beautiful girl.   A popular thing to do in China is to use the Chinese character for jade in Chinese names. The Supreme Deity of Taoism is known as Yuhuang  Dadi (the Jade Emperor). Chinese Stories About Jade Jade is so ingrained in Chinese culture that there are famous stories about Jade (here called bi). The two most famous tales are He Shi Zhi Bi (Mr. He and His Jade or Hes Jade Disc) and Wan Bi Gui Zhao (Jade Returned Intact to Zhao). The stories involve a man named Bian He and a piece of jade that eventually became a symbol of united China. He Shi Zhi Bi tells the story of Mr. He and how he found a piece of raw jade and tried to give it to two generations of kings, but they didnt recognize it as valuable and cut off his feet as punishment for trying to pass off an unworthy stone. Eventually, the grandson of the first king finally had his jeweler cut the stone open and found the raw jade; it was carved into a disc and named after Mr. He by that grandson, Wenwang, the king of the Chu State, around 689 BCE. Wan Bi Gui Zhao is the follow-up story of this famous jade. The carved disc was subsequently stolen from the Chu State and eventually ended up owned by the Zhao. The king of the Qin State, the most powerful state during the Warring States Period (475–221 BCE), attempted to buy the jade disc back from the Zhao State in exchange for 15 cities. (Jade is known as ä » ·Ã¥â‚¬ ¼Ã¨ ¿Å¾Ã¥Å¸Å½, Valued at multiple cities because of this story.) However, he failed. Eventually, after some amount of political chicanery, the jade disc was returned to the Zhao State. In 221 BCE, the emperor Qin Shi Huangdi conquered the Zhao state, and as the ruler and founder of the Qin dynasty, he had the disc carved into a seal representing the new united China. The seal was part of the royal stores in China for 1,000 years before being lost during the Ming and Tang dynasties. Source Wu Dingming. 2014. A Panoramic View of Chinese Culture. Simon and Schuster.

Efficiency Essays

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Financial statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Memphis Design-Michele De Lucchi and Ettore Sottsass Essay

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